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Chapter 21

BUYING MAPS & FORMING A COLLECTION

'How do I know I am buying an original map?'

'How can the map you are selling me be an "original" when you have another one exactly the same in stock?'

'How do I know it isn't a reproduction?'

In the nature of things many map purchasers are first-time buyers to whom antique maps simply make a visual and perhaps local appeal and these questions, among many which dealers are asked, are indeed understandable, especially when we think of current prices; none of us likes to he 'taken for a ride'. In fact, the more we probe into the subject the more questions, many of them affecting the value of a map, arise, so let us set some of them out and suggest some answers.

What is an original map?

In Chapter 2 we have given a brief outline of early methods used for printing maps but, having done that, we have still to decide when a map is 'original'. One would be tempted to say that only the manuscript map from which the engraver made the block or plate could be considered an original. In the case of a painting there would be no doubt about it but, in the map trade, from the earliest times, a print made from a particular woodblock or copper plate has been regarded as an 'original' and until that block or plate was destroyed 'originals' could be printed from it.

Different editions - alterations to blocks or plates. How can you date maps?

Having agreed the definition of an 'original' map we are immediately led to subsidiary but much more difficult questions. A printing block or plate might well be in use for a century or more and detail could obviously be added or deleted; the plates themselves might pass from the original publisher to others who made their own alterations and issues; some copies might be issued coloured and others left plain black and white. It will be readily understood that as today, it was necessary for map publishers to keep their products up to date as new discoveries were made or new geographical information became available. Generally publishers were not noted for their initiative in this direction, but even so, reference to a few of the biographies in Part II will show that most atlases and maps were re-issued, some once or twice, others often a dozen times or more. Dating an atlas from a title page is usually straightforward (although even here dates of successive editions were not always altered) but our problems begin when individual maps are sold separately. Essentially the purchaser has to rely on his own knowledge and on the reputation of the seller, although certain details can be checked without too much difficulty. If the impression is strong and clear, the map could be from an early edition; a weak impression would probably indicate the opposite. Geographical evidence can be a useful guide to dating, i.e. new discoveries being shown. Watermarks offer some help but batches of paper were often in use for a long time, sometimes forty or fifty years! Alterations to text, publisher's names, heraldic devices or cartouches can all have an important bearing on dating. In considering some or all of the above points it should be remembered that most dealers have available specialist works in which may be found details of maps in various editions with their distinguishing characteristics, and although the process of tracking down precise detail is often laborious, no one can be blamed for wishing to know exactly what he is buying. For examples of long-running series of maps illustrating these points the reader need only refer to those of Christopher Saxton and John Speed whose famous county maps were 'in print' for more than a hundred years.

Plate: JOANNES VAN KEULEN Oost Indien (Detail) Amsterdam (1680) c. 1689. Chart of the East Indies giving a splendid representation of the Australian Continent - Holland Nova, as it was then known - with New Guinea still attached to the mainland, and Anthoni van Diemens Landt, later to be known as Tasmania.

Condition

As with all antiques, whether furniture, china, paintings or maps, condition is important and obviously a collector having decided on a purchase should buy a map in the best obtainable condition. The ideal map, coloured or uncoloured, should have a strong, clear impression with wide margins, be printed on good quality watermarked handmade paper of the right size, free from foxing, water stains, worm holes or repair (except perhaps to the centre fold or outside the printed surface), with an undoubted date and provenance. Plenty of such maps exist of course, but our advice here implies that the buyer is offered a choice; it would be a fortunate occurrence indeed to be offered a choice of two Munster maps of America, two Blaeu world maps or two Van Keulen charts, and so, more often than not, the decision depends on the collector's urge (and pocket) to possess a particular map, perhaps irrespective of condition. After all, if a map is one of only three or four known copies, who is going to reject it, even if it has damage to the centre fold especially if it happens to be the very last map to complete a collection! Paper is a comparatively fragile medium and obviously maps printed three or more centuries ago will generally have suffered some damage, so the collector should expect to be asked to pay a premium for flawless maps.

Rarity

At this point our collector may well ask in what quantities maps were printed; if there were so many reissues it is hard to understand the rarity on which so much emphasis seems to be placed. As to the numbers of maps printed recent work done by Marcel P. R. van den Broecke in his fine book Ortelius Atlas Maps [The Netherlads 1996] suggests that between 7000 and 300 copies of individual maps were printed. Compared to the number of postage stamps printed the production was minuscule; it is known that some 68 million Penny Blacks (the first stamp) were printed during 1840- using the same method of printing as had been first used for maps some four centuries earlier! In the case of maps by Mercator or Ortelius and those of such publishers as Blaeu or Jansson, who issued numerous editions, even 500 maps per edition would imply a quite large number of individual maps. This is true, of course, but as soon as we begin to look at the hazards to which maps were subjected, their survival in any quantity over the centuries comes almost as a surprise.

Leaving aside individual maps drawn on vellum (which is exceptionally durable) and other manuscripts (which were probably preserved with special care) maps printed on paper could scarcely be on a material less likely to endure. We need look no further than our own present-day treatment of current maps to realize that hard usage and obsolescence are their main enemies - indeed it would easy to believe that road atlases are produced to fall apart on purpose encouraging further sales. Even in atlases we tend to use maps roughly and our canvas-backed sheet maps survive only a few years of constant use - but obsolescence is the really destructive element. There is nothing more irritating than an Out-of-date map which no longer reflects accurate detail; on replacement, the old map is almost certainly thrown away to avoid unintentional use. How true this must have been of sea charts for example, or of maps of America or Australia as new information became available. Wall maps, normally shown without any protection other than varnish, must have been prone to rough handling and rarely survived long unless bound as atlases in sheet form for library use.

Apart from these mundane reasons for the short life of maps, other more unpredictable hazards existed. Obviously fire, and probably simultaneous water damage, was likely to be the most destructive; wars and looting played a part in the destruction of great libraries; a number of unique maps were lost in the wars of the present century. Portuguese charts of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries preserved in the Casa da India were lost in the Lisbon earthquake in 1755, a fact which accounts for their extreme rarity. Today, survivors are to be found in museums, libraries and national collections and not least, of course, in the hands of the present generation of private collectors, which alone must amount to a formidable total.

Should maps be coloured or uncoloured and how can original colour be recognized?

Whether a collector 'prefers' maps coloured or uncoloured is entirely a personal matter, although it can be said immediately that it is generally accepted that woodcuts are really best left in their original state, i.e. uncoloured. Exceptionally, the maps in the first woodcut Ptolemy edition issued at Ulm in 1482 were usually coloured. Maps from copper-engraved plates are a different matter and here personal preference does play a large part. What proportions of engraved maps were sold originally plain or coloured it is not possible to say but no doubt price and usage entered into the matter. Plain maps were probably bought for practical purposes at perhaps half or even a quarter of the price of a coloured example which may have been wanted only for ornament or as a 'good buy' even in those days.

The practice of colouring varied greatly. In the case of Saxton's maps, for example, there is a uniformity of colour which strongly suggests that they were worked by the same hands, or at least in the same workshops, and it is very rare to see an uncoloured copy. A large number of Blaeu's maps are also beautifully coloured, which we would expect from their highly organized workshops in Amsterdam. On the other hand, many by Blaeu, Jansson, Speed and innumerable others were issued uncoloured or have been coloured in recent years which brings us to what may well be the most difficult question of all to answer: how do we distinguish between original and recent colour? The short answer, which is no help at all to the new collector, is experience and familiarity with the subject. Those handling maps frequently will ask themselves if the colours are appropriate to the time and subject and does the appearance of the map generally accord with others from the same source; have the colours been carefully and artistically applied; do the elusive browns, greens and orange reds strike an authentic note; in fact, does it all look 'right'?

Having said that, it has to be admitted that some modern colouring applied by experts is exceedingly difficult to distinguish from 'old' colouring; indeed, it may well be more skilfully applied, for nobody can claim that all sixteenth and seventeenth-century colourists were uniformly expert. In these circumstances it is tempting to suggest that where skill and expertise of a high order have been exercised the finished product should be accepted for what it is - a beautifully coloured map - but perhaps this faces us with an ethical dilemma too controversial to pursue here.

What to collect

As in other spheres of collecting the range of subsidiary themes to which a map collector may be drawn is sufficiently diverse to meet every possible interest. For a start the chapter headings in Part 1 of this work immediately give an idea of possible specialization: road maps, sea charts, town plans, early editions of Ordnance Survey maps and so on. In addition to these broad headings, collectors may be interested perhaps in one particular cartographer or the cartographers of one country or period as an adjunct to historical study; they may specialize in woodcut maps or, more commonly, there are those who hope to make as complete a collection as possible of one geographical area, whether it be an English county, early maps of the west coast of the United States, or Australia as a Continent. Obviously in this field the possibilities are endless, and, of course, there are those who think in investment terms.

Maps as an Investment

It would be naive to ignore the fact that collections are being assembled as investments and it is possible to argue both for and against this development. In 1979, £374,000 was paid at auction for an atlas containing the only known manuscript maps by Mercator: it was purchased by The British Rail pension fund and obviously the trustees felt that it was a safe resting place for such a substantial sum of money. It must be reassuring for collectors to know that, by implication, professional financial advisers feel that this is a safe field for investment. This unique Mercator item re-appeared on the auction market in 1997 and did not fetch the published reserve in the rooms - it was later acquired by the British Library.

Although it would be possible to quote actual percentage rises in the market value of individual maps over any given period it could be very misleading to do so. The condition, colouring, edition and many other factors, besides financial considerations (such as inflation) have a bearing on the value, which makes it difficult, if not impossible, to be precise. It is, however, possible to give some pointers based on the collecting fashions of the last twenty years. These are, of necessity, generalizations and must be read with that proviso in mind.

Experience has shown that the price of cheaper maps has not increased as rapidly as the more expensive ones. A possible explanation for this is that the cheaper maps are, in the main, more common and that the cost to a dealer - preparing for sale, framing, etc. - is a fixed amount regardless of the scarcity of the item. By definition, therefore, the percentage return will have to be proportionally larger on the cheaper items. To confuse issues even further it should be remembered that most dealers frame items in their own 'house-style' and will not usually make any allowance for frames when buying.

Certain areas of the world have been neglected by collectors for some time and it is possible to hazard a guess that maps of South America (especially Brazil), Africa, India and almost any other developing nation will increase in value more than areas which have already shown spectacular price increases. Surprisingly, perhaps, maps of the British Isles have only recently become of interest and Americana was considerably underpriced for many years. Maps of France are virtually uncollected due to a total lack of interest in France itself and it would be possible to form a fine collection of French maps at a very moderate cost indeed.

Buying and selling at auction

Whilst it must be acknowledged that auctioneers have a difficult task equating the needs of their shareholders and customers [both vendors and purchasers] the inexperienced collector should be very wary of buying at auction with advice from an outside expert. Cataloguing often leaves much to be desired and the descriptions of condition may be argued about forever. Most established dealers will buy at auction for known customers and unless special arrangements are made will generally charge 10 per cent commission, for which fee they will normally have viewed the item and reported back on the condition and any other relevant matters.

Most auction houses sell everything subject to draconian restrictive conditions. These usually state, amongst other things, that should the items prove to be stolen property and recovered by the original owner - perhaps by legal action - the purchaser only has recourse to the person who entered it into the sale and not the auctioneer, so that it may not be possible to obtain any refund at all. As it is usually specifically stated in the Conditions of Sale that "goods are sold with all faults and imperfections and errors of description.....", purchasers should use their own judgement as to whether the lot accords with the description. Atlases and maps are generally "...sold not subject to return...." so that should they prove to be defective in any way the purchaser cannot return them. With the recent advances in restoration techniques this could prove to be a very dangerous legal restriction for the non-expert collector.

Despite all the problems the collector may encounter in buying at auction it cannot be denied that bargains are often to be had. Little credence should be given to the pre-sale estimates provided by the auction houses as a comparison with the prices obtained at any given sale will show; so don't be afraid of making a bid - even if it is a fraction of the estimate.

Collectors who wish to sell maps or atlases will find that it is very easy to do so through the auction houses but should remember that it may take a year for payment to be made and that very nearly 20 per cent of the price paid may be deducted in charges! Long delays and high expenses may be avoided by selling direct to a dealer who would expect to pay at once.

Reproductions, fakes and forgeries

Reproductions of many early maps are readily obtainable and, indeed, it would often be impossible to purchase the original, e.g. the Hereford Map. These reproductions are invaluable for research and study and the potential student is recommended to obtain catalogues of these items. The British Library have a number of publications of interest including reproductions of Saxton's county maps, many others being obtainable from specialist map dealers and many other libraries and Museums.

Above all things the collector will not want to purchase a 'fake', but it is difficult, if not impossible, to give any hard and fast rules to prevent this occurrence. In recent years the writers have noticed reproduction maps which have been 'doctored' with the intention of deceiving potential purchasers - often included in auction sales these fakes would deceive all but the expert. Generally the line of the printing does not have the 'bite' of the original engraving and often areas of the map where lines are very close together have 'blocked' up and present a solid appearance rather than being composed of single fine lines in very close proximity. Old frames are readily obtainable and the authors have seen frames which have been cut down from larger sizes with back boards showing clean edges - showing the cutting down -- which are then fastened into the frame with aged back boards and old nails.

If in any doubt at all the aspiring collector is well advised to ask expert advice. When purchasing a house, a boat, a car or even a horse, it is not usual to rush out and buy without an independent opinion and that is what should be done when buying maps. Established collectors and dealers have usually spent many years studying the subject and will generally give advice freely. The media seem to delight in exposing all the worst traits of dealers and rarely - if ever - suggest that purchasers should draw on the trade's expertise rather than constantly suspecting it of chicanery.

In the late 1970's two maps by Ortelius of North and South America and the 1587World Map purporting to be original were drawn to the attention of the Public Archives of Canada, the National Map Collection. Upon examination they proved to be forgeries, specifically made to deceive, bearing the closest possible resemblance to the originals. Apart from scientific tests on the paper, ink and printed image, which showed that the maps were not old, the false platemark was 11 mm larger than the originals. It must be assumed, unfortunately, that forgeries of this type will continue and that their 'quality' will improve. This trend has continued and numerous fakes have turned up including one of the complete Bartolemmeo Sonetti Isolario - the authors are aware of five separate copies of this!

Displaying and caring for maps

Many antiques, including maps, are made from organic materials (which decay) and should ideally, therefore, be kept in an air conditioned environment. This is obviously impossible for the majority of collectors and a compromise must be sought.

Paper was initially made in the Orient from vegetable fibres and the first record of European paper-making is in the twelfth century by the Moors in Spain and, independently, in Southern Italy. White paper was first made in England in 1495,by which time it had already been manufactured on the European mainland for at least 100years. Until about 1800 all fine European paper was made entirely of rags pulped in water by simple water-driven machinery. After manufacture the individual dried sheets of paper were 'sized' by immersion in vats of 'size' - or animal glue - and then left to dry. This process prevented the paper remaining absorbent - like blotting paper - and enabled the colourists to apply large areas of even colour comparatively easily. The size on many old maps has decayed and it is reassuring to know that during the last twenty or thirty years there has been a remarkable increase in the range of conservation techniques and it is now possible to treat virtually every type of blemish and deterioration found on paper.

Considerable differences of opinion exist concerning the roles of restorer and conservator and it may be of use to give a brief definition of their functions before expanding further. Conservation is essentially the use of various techniques (physical and chemical) both in storage and treatment to preserve a given item in its existing state, whilst restoration is the use of available methods to bring back a damaged article to its original condition. Difficulties can arise when owners of damaged material require work to be done which conflicts with the ethics of conservation or restoration.

When items of great historic interest are being treated it is obvious that nothing should be added to them - or taken away! It is, however, difficult to determine when missing material should be replaced - that is, of course, when the original state is known. It can be argued that it is acceptable to replace missing portions of a common map and it is also possible to contend, quite reasonably, that it is wrong to do so and that the spaces should be left blank. Curators, archivists, restorers, dealers and collectors have been discussing these problems for many years without reaching any firm conclusions and with so many conflicting requirements obviously a compromise must be reached; this has to be left to individual judgement.

Framing is a more easily solved problem although even here difficulties may be encountered by the unsuspecting. Traditionally, framers stuck down everything on paper or strawboard to ensure that when framed it would be completely flat; luckily a more enlightened attitude is prevalent today, although self-adhesive tape, acidic mounts and backing boards and even dry mounting are still to be found on framed maps; all these methods of handling can damage old paper. Most specialist map dealers can provide a skilled framing service and will willingly advise customers. Acid-free mounting boards may be obtained, although chemically neutralized boards should be avoided as they tend to revert to their original state by absorption from the atmosphere. At the first sign of decay the owner must take professional advice.

No one would deny for a moment that every care must be taken to preserve old maps but we should not be carried away by the urge to conserve; after all, great numbers of very early maps have survived without any special care at all. Amateur restoration or conservation can create more problems than they solve, very often presenting professionals with the task of trying to repair the irreparable.

Sources of information

We should not leave this chapter without a word on sources of information available to the new map collector. The bibliography at the end of this book (and in others of a similar nature) obviously provides the first step, but this is a specialized subject and unfortunately many of these works are not readily available although dealers will probably have copies of some of them. The larger public libraries can usually obtain copies even if they are not actually on the shelves. In addition there is the magazine Mercator's World of 845 Willamette Street, Eugene OR 97401, USA published bi-monthly [Internet: http://www.mercatormag.com] and the catalogues issued by many of the principal map dealers provide an accessable and absolutely invaluable, indeed indispensable, source of information on details of maps and cartographers and, of course, on selling prices. The catalogues issued some years ago by Robert Douma (Prints and Maps) Ltd (formerly Weinreb and Douma Ltd) - many written by the present Curator of The British Library Map Room - serve as one of the best examples of this source of information.

Where old maps may be seen

Many collectors will probably be content to look at maps and catalogues in dealers' showrooms; those who wish to extend their interest will find that most of the older University libraries and the larger public reference libraries have collections of maps to display to the serious student. It will be realized that before asking to see valuable original maps, it is only reasonable to make an appointment with librarians and to declare one's interest. The high value of maps and atlases have, understandably, made it essential for the guardians of public collections to be very cautious in allowing un-supervised access to their treasures. As a further very general guide, some of the major map collections, world-wide, are listed below but, it need scarcely be emphasized, the list is by no means complete and the serious researcher will soon be able to add his own sources of information. An increasing number of Map Fairs are being organized including the only one held every month at

London

• British Library; Royal Geographical Society; Guildhall Library; National Maritime Museum

Oxford

• Bodleian Library

Cambridge

• University Library; Fitzwilliam Museum

Edinburgh

• University Library

Aberystwyth

• National Library of Wales

Alnwick Castle Collection

Hereford Cathedral Mappa Mundi

Paris

• Bibliotheque Nationale

Strassburg

• Universitatsbibliothek

The Hague

• Rijksarchief

Amsterdam

• Nederlandsh Historisch Sheepvaart Museum; Universiteits Bibliotheek

Rotterdam

• Maritiem Museum

Utrecht

• Geografisch Instituut der Rijksuniversiteit

Brussels

• Archives Ge ne rales du Royaume; Bibliotheque Royale

Antwerp

• Museum Plantin-Moretus; National Sheepvaartmuseum

Berlin (West)

• Staatsbibliothek Preussischer Kulturbesitz

(East)

• Deutsche Staatsbibliothek

Hamburg

• Deutsche Hydrographische Institut

Munich

• Bayerische Staatsbibliothek

Nuremberg

• Germanische Nationalmuseum

Wurttemberg

• Schloss Wolfegg

Vienna

• Oesterreichische Nationalbibliothek

Rome

• Bibliotheca Nazionale
• Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana

Florence

• Bibliotheca Medicea Laurenziana

Venice

• Bibliotheca Nazionale Marciana

Basle

• Universitatsbibliothek

St Gallen

• Stiftsbibliothek

Zurich

• Zentralbibliothek and Staatsarchiv

Madrid

• Biblioteca National

Lisbon

• Museum National de Arte Antiga

Copenhagen

• Det Kongelige Bibliothek

Stockholm

• Kungliga Biblioteket

Helsinki

• University Library (Nordenskidld Collection)

Warsaw

• Bibliotheka Narodowa

Washington

• Library of Congress

New York

• American Geographical Society (now at University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee); Pierpoint Morgan Library; Public Library

Ann Arbor

• University of Michigan, William L. Clements Library

Baltimore

• Peabody Institute Library & Johns Hopkins University Library

Chicago

• Newberry Library

Harvard

• University Library

Los Angeles

• University of California, William Andrew Clark Memorial Library

Princeton

• University Library

Providence, RI

• John Carter Brown Library

San Marino, Cal.

• Huntington Library

Yale

• University Library

Montreal

• La Societe Historique du Lac Saint Louis

Ottawa

• National Map Collection

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