Antique Maps ~ David Bannister, Rare Maps, Posters, Prints

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Chapter 19

PORTUGAL, SPAIN, SCANDINAVIA, SWITZERLAND, RUSSIA & POLAND

In this chapter we record some of the more important names associated with the development of cartography in Portugal, Spain, Scandinavia, Switzerland, Russia and Poland. As a matter of historical interest details of a number of famous manuscript maps and charts from Portuguese and Spanish sources are included as well as later printed maps from those countries. The rarity of manuscript maps needs no emphasis but early printed maps by Portuguese and Spanish cartographers are also scarce and although those of Scandinavia and Switzerland are perhaps not quite so rare the appearance on the market of an early edition of Olaus Magnus's map of Scandinavia or of maps of Switzerland by Johann Stumpf is an unusual event.

PORTUGAL AND SPAIN

Portuguese and Spanish manuscript maps

As we have already shown few of the charts and maps drawn by the first Portuguese and Spanish navigators have survived for the very good reason that, on completion of their voyages, pilots were obliged to hand over their manuscript notes to the Casa da India (founded 1 5o~4) in Lisbon or to the equivalent Casa de Contrataci6n de las Indias (founded 1504) in Seville. The clear intention was to maintain secrecy over new discoveries and control over the distribution of cartographic material, not always successfally, as it happened; pilots and navigators seem to have changed allegiance with impunity and, in consequence, many of the earliest and most informative charts were compiled as far away as Genoa, Venice, Florence and Ancona, presumably from sources outside the Portuguese and Spanish 'Casas'.

It will be apparent from the foregoing that few manuscripts reached the printing stage and, indeed, are so rare that any study of them must be regarded as a specialist subject far beyond the scope of this work. The accompanying notes do no more than give the briefest introduction to names which our 'general collector' may wish to follow up elsewhere. This short list of manuscript maps is followed by details of the more conventional, though still not very common, printed maps by Portuguese and Spanish cartographers.

PEDRO REINEL fl. c. 1485-1522

JORGE REINEL fl. c. 1510-40

Manuscript charts and maps of the west coast of Africa (c.1485), the North Atlantic (c. 1504-06), the South Atlantic (c. 1519), World Map (c. 1522).

JUAN DE LA COSA fl. 1492-1500

Manuscript map of America (c. 1500) - the first surviving map of the New World.

ALBERTO CANTINO fl. 1502

Manuscript world map (1502) showing America.

LOPO HOMEN 1497-1572

Manuscript maps of Brazil (c. 1519), World Map (1554).

DIOGO RIBEIRO fl. 1519-33

Manuscript map (1527) recording Magellan's voyage of circumnavigation. Maps of Africa (c. 1529) and America (c. 1532).

Biographies of Portuguese cartographers

FERNANDO ALVAREZ (SECCO) fl. 1560-65

c. 1560-61 Lusitania The first modern map of Portugal, published in Rome and later used by Ortelius and de Jode.

Plate: DIOGO HOMEN Navigation dell' Europa. The Giacorno Rossi (Rome 1648) version of the first sea chart engraved on copper, originally published in Venice in 1569.

Plate: LUIZ JORGE DE BARBUDA/ORTELIUS Chinae Antwerp (1584) c. 1598. Compiled by Barbuda, a Portuguese Jesuit missionary, this famous map remained the standard map of China for about half a century. Barbuda used the signature 'Ludovico Georgio'.

DIOGO HOMEN fl. 1530-76

Homen, one of the most important portulan chart makers of his time, engraved the plates for what is claimed to be the first printed sea chart (1569), showing the Mediterranean and most of Europe as far north as Denmark. Homen had an uneasy life, being exiled for political reasons from his native country, from which he went to England where he was even less fortunate. He eventually settled in Venice where his sea chart was published.

1569-71 La Carta del navigar dell'Europa: Venice, published by Paolo Forlani c.1572 Re-issued by Lafreri c. 1606 Re-issued in Rome c. 1648 Re-issued by Giacomo Rossi, Rome

FERNXO VAZ DOURADO c. 1520-80

1568-71 Maps of the Indies including a World Map
1568-80 SeaAtlas

LUIZ JORGE DE BARBUDA (LUDOVICO GEORGIO) fl. 1584

Barbuda, for many years a Jesuit missionary in China, related his experiences there in a work, A Description of China, with a map of the country which was subsequently used by Ortelius from 1584 onwards. The map was signed 'Ludovico Georgio'.

1584 Map of China

LUDOVICO (LUIZ) TEIXEIRA 1564-1604

Ludovico Teixeira, a mathematician and rnap maker in the service of Spain, was appointed cartographer to the Spanish crown. Apart from manuscript maps relating to the Azores and voyages to Brazil he is remembered for his map of Japan (1592), used by Ortelius in 1595. This was the first separately printed map of the country and remained the standard map until those compiled by Martini were published in Amsterdam in ~ His world maps issued probably in 1598 and 1604 have not survived.

1592 Japan

JOAO TEIXEIRA c. 1602-66

Joao Teixeira, as Cosmographer to the King of Portugal, compiled important manuscript maps and sea charts on which Portugal's territorial claims against Spain were based. In spite of the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas drawn up in 1494, argument between Spain and Portugal as to the division of the 'new world' still continued after 150 years and in that context these maps are of historical importance.

c. 1630 Atlas (of the whole world) Maps of Brazil, India, Portugal and the world

ANTONIO DE MARIZ CARNEIRO fl. 1639-42

c. 1639 Recimento de Pilotes e roteiro de navegacem . . .(4t0) Charts and sailing directions covering the coasts and harbours of West Africa and South America

Biographies of Spanish cartographers

PEDRO DE MEDINA C. 1493-c. 1567

Medina, who took part in expeditions with Cortez in the New World, was famous in his time for a treatise called The Art of Navigation, one of the first practical books on seamanship. His work was held in high esteem and was widely read in many languages throughout Europe. A particularly important translation was made by the French traveller, Nicolas de Nicolay, who made a number of additions including an engraved sea chart of his own.

1545 Arte de Navegar: Valladolid, published in Spanish, containing woodcut illustrations and chart showing America 1549 onwards: many re-issues 1554-69 Nicolas de Nicolay: Paris and Lyon

JERONIMO GIRAVA fl. 1556

Cosmographer to Charles V, Girava is known for a book published in 1556 in Venice which contained woodcut world map, now very rare.

1556 La Cosmographiay Geographia 1570 Re-issued

DIEGO GUTIERREZ 1485-1554

Gutierrez was a chart maker and pilot in the Casa de Ia Contrataci6n de las Indias in Seville where he was associated with Sebastian Cabot. Apart from manuscript maps, his large map of America, published posthumously in Antwerp, showed the Spanish p05sessions in the New World, named California for the first time, and gave a much exaggerated picture of the course of the Amazon which influenced other cartographers for a century or more.

1562 Americae sive qiartae orbis partis nova et exactissima descriptio

BENEDICTUS ARIAS MONTANUS c. 1527-98

Montanus, a Spanish theologian, compiled maps issued with a Polyglot Bible published in Antwerp by Plantin in 1571-72. It included a map of the Holy Land, now very rare, and a double-hemisphere world map on which there is a clear indication of an Australian Continent.

1571-72 Bib/ia Polygiotta

ANTONIO DE HERRERA Y TORDESILLAS 1559-1625

Herrera, a writer and official historian to the King of Spain, compiled a history of the Indies accompanied by maps of the West Indies and Central and South America. This was first published in Madrid in 1601 and was re-issued in several editions and languages, the most important of which were in 1622; the map of South America in that edition indicated the track of the Le Maire/Schouten voyage round Cape Horn and the title page shows the western seaboard of North America with California as an island, probably the first map to do so.

1601 Descripcidn de las Indias Occidentales: Madrid: 14 maps Various editions including i6zz in Amsterdam in French and Latin

Plate: BENEDICTUS ARIAS MONTANUS Sacrae Geogap&ae Tabulani Antwerp 1571-72. Double-hemisphere world map included in the Polyglot Bible edited by Arias Montanus and published by Plantin This is one of the earliest maps to give a hint of an Australian continent

Plate: LUDOVICO (LUIz) TEIXEIRA Japonia InsuIae Descriptio. The first map of Japan published in a European atlas. Compiled by Teixeira, a Portuguese Jesuit in the service of the Spanish Crown, it was used by Ortelius in 1595 and in later editions of the Tbeatrum Orbis Terrarim.

TOMAS LOPEZ (DE VARGAS MACHUCA) 1730-1802

Lopez, as Geographer to the King, compiled and published in Madrid a considerable number of town plans, maps and atlases, of which those noted below were the most important.

c. 1757 Atlas geografico de Espan~a Later editions into nineteenth century
1758 Atlas geografico de Ia Am6rica septentrionaly meridional
1778 Map of Portugal
1792 Atlas elemental
c. 1798 Atlas (without title) Maps dated between 1765 and 1798

MIGUEL COSTANS6 (COSTANZO) fl. 1769-1811

c. 1771 Carta Reducida del Oc6ano Asidtico Map of the west coast of America made during a Spanish expedition in 1769-70
1777 Nueva Espana

VICENTE TO(R)FINO DE SAN MIGUEL c. I732-95

Spanish marine cartographer whose charts were noted for their accuracy and excellence of engraving.

c. 1786 Cartas maritimas de la costa de Espana
c. 1789 Atlas Maritimo de Espana: Madrid, 2 vols (large folio) Vol. 1 Spain (Atlantic Coast), Portugal, Azores Vol.11 Spain (Mediterranean Coast) and Balearics 1807 Re-issued
c. 1805 Atlas (without title) Maps of the West Indies and South America

Plate: ANTONIO DE HERRERA South America. Map of South America first published in Madrid in 1601 showing the demarcation line between the Spanish and Portuguese 'spheres of influence' laid down by the Pope in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. On this copy, place names have been added in manuscript in a very early hand.

JOSE' DE ESPINOSA c. 1753-1815

A Spanish traveller and hydrographer, de Espinosa compiled charts of the west coast of North America and the Indies. Active at a time when Spain was at last breaking away from the secrecy imposed for so long on her map and chart makers he founded the Spanish Hydrographical Survey Office (Deposito Hydrografico) in 1797.

1800-06 Atlas Included the first charts (Vancouver Island 1795-98) published by the new Hydrographical Survey Office

Specialist references (Portugaland_Spain)

BAGROW, L., History of Cartography

CRONE, G. R., Maps and their Makers

HOWSE, D. and SANDERSON, M., The Sea Chart

TOOLEY, R . V., BRICKER, C. and CRONE, G. R. Landmarks of Map Making

Throughout the chapters on the Continents contains much information about Portuguese and Spanish cartographers

SCANDINAVIA

Before the fifteenth century the peoples of Southern Europe had little geographical knowledge of the Scandinavian world except from sketchy detail shown in the Catalan Atlas (1375) and on a number of 'portolani' embracing Denmark and the southern tip of Norway. It was not until 1427 that a manuscript map prepared about that time by Claudius Clavus (b. 1388), a Dane who had spent some time in Rome, made available to scholars a tolerable outline of the northern countries and Greenland. That was to remain the best map available for the rest of the century and it was used as the basis for maps of Scandinavia in early printed editions of Ptolemy. Others by Nicolaus Cusanus (1491) and Ehrhard Etzlaub (c. 1492) followed but, needless to say, these are extremely rare; even the later maps by Olaus Magnus and Marcus Jordan, where they have survived at all, are known only by very few examples. In fact, apart from the rare appearance of an early Ptolemy map, the oldest of Scandinavia which a collector is likely to find are those in Munster's Cosmography published in 1544 with many later editions. In the following centuries the comparatively few maps and charts compiled in Scandinavia were usually published in Amsterdam, Antwerp, Paris or Nuremberg, the more important maps often being incorporated in the major Dutch, French and German atlases.

Biographies of_Danish cartographers

MARCUS JORDAN (MARK JORDEN) 1521-95

Jordan, a professor of mathematics in Copenhagen, was an important figure in the history of Danish cartography. His original map of Denmark, said to have been made in 1552, has not survived but is known from its later use by Ortelius and Mercator. There is only one copy of a map of Holstein also made by him, but another map of Denmark (1585) was included in Braun and Hogenberg's Civitates Orbis Terrarum (1588), the only map included in that collection of town plans.

1552 Kingdom of Denmark Used by Ortelius from 1570 onwards (in various states)
1559 Holstein
1585 Kingdom of Denmark with coats of arms, allegorical figures and globes

LIEVEN ALGOET fl. 1562

1 562 Terrarum septentrionalium Map of Scandinavia published in Antwerp

TYCHO BRAHE 1546-1601

A mathematician, scientist and, above all, the most noted astronomer of his time, Tycho Brahe built an observatory at Uraniborg on the island of Hven off Elsinore, where for twenty years he carried out a prolonged series of observations of the movement of the sun, moon, stars and the planets. These, and his discoveries of a new star Cassiopeia in 1572, affected profoundly the approach to astronomy and the prevailing ideas of the nature of the universe. Late in life he was exiled from Denmark and settled in Prague where he came in contact with Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), the German scientist who eventually, after Brahe's death, edited and published his work.

The most famous of Brahe's pupils was the young Willem Blaeu who spent two years at Uraniborg before setting up in business in Amsterdam as a globe maker, later to become the most celebrated map publisher of his time. Blaeu's famous engravings of the Observatory were published in the Atlas maior in 1660.

JOHANNES ISAKSEN PONTANUS 1571-1639

As 'royal historian', Pontanus compiled a history of Denmark which included maps of Denmark and Schleswig.

1631 Rerum Danicarum Historia: Amsterdam, published by Jodocus Hondius and Jan Jansson

JOHANNES MEJER 1606-74

As mathematician and geographer to the Court, Mejer compiled important maps, some of which were subsequently used by Blaeu in the major atlases.

c. 1649-52 Atlas of Schleswig Holstein, published by Caspar Danckwerth
c. 1650 Map of Denmark

PEDER RESEN 1625-88

1677 At/as Danicus
1684 Faroe Islands

JENS SORENSON 1646-1723

1679 Sea charts of the Baltic Copied by Jaillot and van Keulen

ERIK PONTOPPIDAN 1698-1764

Pontoppidan, a noted theologian, naturalist and geographer, was Bishop of Bergen before being appointed to Copenhagen University in 1755. There, in association with Christian Fester (1732-1811), he compiled a comprehensive Danish Atlas, which was published in 7 parts between 1763 and 1781.

1730 Theatrum Daniae veteris et modernae (4to): town plans and views
1763-81 Den Danske Atlas Various re-issues

VITUS JOH. BERING 1680-1741

A Danish seaman in the service of Peter the Great, Bering undertook arduous journeys across Siberia followed by voyages of exploration in the Northern Pacific, during which he proved the existence of the Strait (bearing his name) between the Asiatic mainland and Alaska. His manuscript maps and charts were used as the basis for maps in the Nouve/ Atlas de Ia Chine (1737) by the French cartographer J. B. B. d'Anville.

LOUIS CHARLES DESNOS fl. 1750-90

Desnos was appointed globe maker to the King of Denmark but he spent most of his life as a globe maker and map publisher in Paris, often in association with Brion de la Tour.

1761 Atlas Methodique
1761 Routes des Postes
c. 1764 Atlas Historique et Geographique
1766 The Roads through England or Ogilby's Survey (after Senex)
1767 Nouvel At/as d'Angleterre
1768 Atlas General Methodique (with Brion de la Tour) c. 1790 Re-issued
1786 Atlas General et Elementaire

THOMAS BUGGE 1740-1815

Thomas Bugge, mathematician and surveyor, completed the first survey of Denmark by triangulation.

c.1780-89 Kingdom of Denmark

PAUL DE LOVENORN 1751-1826

A noted hydrographer who founded the Danish Hydrographic Office in 1784.

1800 Kattegat: Sailing directions
1807 Chart of the Baltic Straits
1815 Charts of the coasts of Norway

CONRAD MALTE BRUN 1775-1826

VICTOR MALTE BRUN 1816-89

A Danish geographer, Conrad Malte Brun settled in Paris about the year 1800 where he collaborated with the French historian Edme' Mentelle in the publication of a Universal Atlas and other works.

1804 Geographie Mathematique

1812 Atlas Comp/et

1816 At/as de Geographie Universelle (with E. Mentelle) Further editions by Victor Malte Brun

Biography of Norwegian cartographer

CHRISTIAN JOCHUM PONTOPPIDAN 1739-1807

Pontoppidan served for many years in the Danish Army earning a high reputation as a skilful surveyor and cartographer. At a time when official map making in Norway was in its infancy, his accurate and detailed maps were used in boundary settlements when Norway was ceded by Denmark to Sweden in 1814.

1781 Denmark, Norway and Sweden

1785-95 Southern and Northern Norway Separate large-scale maps

Biographies of_Swedish cartographers

JOHANNES MAGNUS fl. 1534

A former Archbishop of Uppsala, exiled in Rome with his brother, Olaus Magnus, Johannes wrote a History of the Swedish People, accompanied by a map of Scandinavia.

1534 History of the Swedish People: Rome, with large woodcut map of Scandinavia

Plate: MARK JORDEN Danorum marca . . . Cologne 1588. This was the only map published in Braun and Hogenherg's collection of town plans, the Civitates Orbis Terrarum.

OLAUS MAGNUS I490-1558

Olaus Magnus, a celebrated churchman, was born in Link6 ping and studied at Uppsala, then a famous centre of learning. As a devout Catholic he became involved in the convulsions of the Swedish Reformation and in consequence spent many years in Italy, where he probably compiled his very famous large-scale map of Scandinavia, the Carta Marina, published in Venice in 1539, of which only one copy is known. Fortunately, reduced versions were printed in his later Historia which went through many editions.

1539 Carta Marina (9 sheets): Venice
1571 Reduced version in Lafreri (Rome) atlases
1555 Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus - A

Treatise concerning the Northern People: Rome (small folio)

Contained woodcut map of Scandinavia -a simplified version of the 1539 map

20 re-issues over the next century

ANDREAS BURE (BURAEUS) 1571-1661

A surveyor and mathematician who compiled an important map of the northern part of Sweden and the first separately printed map of the country, both of which were used extensively by Dutch and other publishers. Original copies are now extremely rare.

Plate: WILLEM BLAEU/ANDREAS BURE Suecia, Dania et Norvegia Amsterdam (1634) 1642. Map of Scandinavia based on Bure's map of 1626. Bure was an important figure in the history of Swedish cartography and set up a land surveying office which continued for over 200 years.

Bure wrote a historical geography of Sweden and set up a land surveying office which continued in being for over 200 years.

1611 Northern Provinces of Sweden
1626 Orbis Arctoi Nova (Scandinavia) (6 sheets)

JOHAN MANSSON fl. 1644-59

Swedish hydrographer who compiled some of the earliest sea charts of the Baltic.

1644 First printed chart of the Gulf of Finland

1645 Sea Atlas

COUNT ERIK DAHLBERG 1625-1703

A Swedish field marshal, military engineer and cartographer, Count Dahlberg was the author of a number of topographical works including the maps and plans in a famous account of the military exploits of Gustavus Adolphus by Samuel Pufendorf

1660 Kingdom of Denmark
1667 Suecia Antiqua

Nearly 500 topographical views republished over a long period

History of the reign of Gustavus Adolphus by Samuel Pufendorf: Nuremberg Maps and plans by Dahlberg
1698 Atlas of Sweden

PETTER GEDDA c. 1661-97

Gedda published the first Swedish sea charts, which were widely copied by Hendrick Doncker, van Keulen and others.

1694-95 Chart Book of the Baltic: published in Swedish and Dutch

1695 Charts of the Skager Rack

DANIEL DJURBERG 1744-1834

A cartographer at Uppsala University, Djurberg compiled a notable map of the Pacific showing Cook's voyages. He used the name 'Ulimaroa', the Maori name for Australia, which appeared on a number of maps for thirty or forty years.

1780 Map of Polynesia (Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Ocean): Stockholm

JOHAN NORDENANKAR 1722-1804

1788-90 Charts of the Baltic

1795 Sea Atlas

COUNT SAMUEL GUSTAF HERMELIN 1744-1820

1796-1812 Geografiske Kartor ofver Swerige - Atlas of Sweden and part of Finland (large folio)

GUSTAV KLINT 1771-1840

1832 Swedish Sea Atlas

Specialist References (Scandinavia)

BRAMSEN, BO, Gamle Danmarkskort

A history of Danish cartography with biographies of prominent map makers

NORDENSKIOLD, A. E., Facsimile Atlas to the Early History of Cartography

TOOLEY, R. V., Maps and Map-Makers

Contains much useful information, not readily available elsewhere, on Scandinavian cartographers

SWITZERLAND

By comparison with her larger neighbours, Germany and Italy, it may not be considered that Switzerland has made a major contribution to the history of cartography, but in the sixteenth century especially Swiss influence was by no means negligible. Certainly the first printed map of Switzerland was published in Martin Waldseemuller's edition of Ptolemy at Strassburg in 1513, but the manuscript map by Konrad Turst (1497) drawn to scale was a splendid achievement for its time and the researches of Vadianus at St Gallen University produced notable work; the Germanic influence in Basle, which became part of the Swiss Confederation in 1501, and the highly developed wood engraving skills there were important factors in European map publishing. The almost endless editions of Munster were published there from 1540 onwards for nearly a century and Zurich can claim to have published the first national atlas produced anywhere -that of Johann Stumpf in 1548-52.

In the second half of the sixteenth century many maps of the cantons in manuscript or woodcut appeared but the mountainous nature of the country produced its own mapping problems and imposed a need for large-scale surveys as well as practical and effective methods of showing land surfaces in relief. Early in the seventeenth century Hans Gyger perfected new ways of doing this but although he published a wide range of very large-scale maps of the cantons and of Switzerland as a whole his techniques did not receive the acceptance they deserved. On the other hand his countrymen followed his precedent of compiling large-scale maps for which they have always been noted until the present day

Biographies

JOACHIM VADIANUS (JOACHIM VON WATT) 1484-1551

A mathematician and scholar, active in St Gallen in Eastern Switzerland, Vadianus wrote a treatise Epitome trium terrae partium, published in Zurich, which included a noted woodcut world map.

1534 Epitome trium terrae partium

Included a world map, Typus Cosmographicus Universalis, on oval projection probably based on Bordone

1546 Re-issued: 13 woodcut maps by Joh. Honter

1540 De situ Orbis (Pomponius Mela): Paris: included double heart-shaped world map by Orance Fine (small folio)

AEGIDIUS TSCHUDI 1505-72

A Swiss cartographer who compiled a number of manuscript maps, the most important being a map of Switzerland which was subsequently printed and used by Munster, Forlani, Ortelius and others.

1538 Map of Switzerland: Basle

1555 Re-issued in Rome

Plate: MARTIN WALDSEEMULLER Tabula Helvetia Strassburg 1525. This map is a later edition of the first printed map of Switzerland which appeared in 1513.

JOHANN STUMPF 1500-77

Swiss historian who published in 1548 a Swiss Chronicle, a history and geographical description of Switzerland which included 23 woodcut maps. The maps, re-issued as an Atlas in 1552, can be claimed to form the first national Atlas, pre-dating Lazius's maps of Austria (I561) and Saxton's England & Wales (1579). Town plans by Stumpf were used by Braun and Hogenberg in the Civitates Orbis Terrarum.

1544 Map of Canton Valais

1545 Map of Canton Zurich

1548 Chronicle: Zurich

History of Switzerland with 23 woodcut maps including maps of Germany and

France - some maps by Johannes Honter 1552 Re-issued as Landtaffeln: Zurich, Ch.

Froschauer

HANS KONRAD GYGER (GEIGER) 1599-1674

Gyger was a mathematician who devised new and very effective means of showing land surface in relief, but his methods were never generally accepted.

c. 1634-85 Swiss Cantons: large-scale maps

MATTHAUS MERIAN (father) 1593-1650

MATTHAUS MERIAN (son) 1621-87

See entry in Chapter 12

Plate: JAN JANSSON Nova Helvetiae Tabula Amsterdam 1630. This is a rare map, engraved by Jodocus Hondius II, from an 'experimental' Atlas issued by Jansson to test the market for a proposed new work.

JOHANN JAKOB SCHEUCHZER 1672-1733

Mathematician, physician and geographer who produced one of the first large-scale maps of Switzerland.

1712 Nouvelle Carte de Ia Suisse (4 sheets)

1716 Re-issued by Pieter Schenk 1730-35 do Covens and Mortier

1765 Further re-issue (His map was also used by R. and J. Ottens.)

JOHANN GASPAR SCHEUCHZER fl. 1727

A Swiss naturalist who is known for his compilation of a series of 11 maps of the provinces and main cities of Japan based on the work of a German physician and naturalist, Engelbert Kaempfer, who spent some years in Nagasaki in the service of the Dutch East India Co.

1727-29 Maps, plans and itineraries of Japan 1740 Re-issued by R. and J. Ottens

ISAAC BRUCKNER 1686-1762

Bruckner was a cartographer, engraver and instrument and globe maker who was appointed a Geographer to Louis XV of France.

1749 Nouvel Atlas de Marine: Berlin 1759 Re-issued in The Hague

LEONHARD EULER 1707-83

Physician and cartographer, born in Basle, Euler spent many years in Germany and Russia where he was associated with the preparation of the Atlas of Russia (J. N. Delisle) published in St Petersburg in 1745

1753 Atlas Geographicus: Berlin 1756, 1760 Re-issued

JOHANN HEINRICH WEISS 1759-1826

JOHANN RUDOLF MEYER 1739-1813

Weiss and Meyer published the first Atlas of engraved maps of Switzerland as well as a large-scale relief map.

c. 1786-1802 Atlas Suisse

c. 1788-96 Carte de la Suisse: 16-sheet map

GUILLAUME HENRI DUFOUR 1787-1875

c. 1832-64 Switzerland: 25-sheet map - the first complete topographical survey of the country

Specialist References (Switzerland)

BAGROW, L. History of Cartography

CRONE, G. R., Maps and their Makers

RUSSIA

It is scarcely necessary to look at a map of Russia - with which we must include Siberia - to visualize the daunting task facing Russian map makers. Indeed, considering the vastness of their territory and the lack of skilled cartographers, it is surprising that relatively good maps were available for engraving and printing in most of the well known sixteenth and seventeenth century atlases. Generally, maps of that time were based on material brought back from Moscow by visitors from the West. Notable among these were the following:

PAOLO GIOVIO (1483-1552)

Map of European Russia (I525) based on detail provided by a Muscovite ambassador to Rome, Demetrius Gerasimov (c. 1465 - c. 1525). It appeared in manuscript form and was subsequently used by Giacomo Gastaldi in his 1548 edition of Ptolemy's Geographia and also by later publishers.

SIGISMUND HERBERSTEIN (1486-1566)

Map of Muscovia (1549) compiled by Herberstein, who was ambassador from the Habsburg Emperor, Maximilian I to Moscow. The map, based on material by a Lithuanian, Ivan Lyatsky fl. c. 1526-1555) was used by Sebastian Munster and others. Lyatsky himself also produced a map of Russia dated 1555.

ANTHONY JENKINSON (fl. 1545-I 577)

The first English ambassador to Russia, Jenkinson made a remarkable journey as far as Bokhara in Asiatic Russia and subsequently compiled a famous map of his travels. Unfortunately, no actual copy of the map has survived but it was used by Ortelius in 1570 and Gerard de Jode in 1578 as the basis for maps in their atlases.

ISAAC MASSA (1587-1635)

A Dutch traveller, Massa compiled a map of Russia (c. 1612) which was used in the Blaeu/Jansson atlases.

CORNELIS CRUYS (1657-1727)

A Dutch Admiral, in the service of Peter the Great, compiled and published an atlas of the River Don and the Sea of Asov (c. 1704).

The first map of any real importance known to have been produced in Russia was the manuscript 'Great Map' compiled in the time of Tsar Boris Godunov (1598-1605), followed by later versions covering the expansion of the Empire southwards and eastwards. In the second half of the seventeenth century a start was made on the mapping of Siberia (1667) by Peter Godunov (fl. 1667-69) and an atlas of Siberia was published (c. 1698-1701) by Semyon Ulanovitch Remezov (1642-1720). Evidently the printing of maps in Russia presented difficulties which Peter the Great (1689-1725) attempted to overcome by licensing a Dutch publisher in Amsterdam specifically to print Russian maps. This was about 1699 but soon afterwards a private printing house was established in Moscow by the cartographer, Vasily Kiprianov (fl. 1706-17) who published maps of Russia and the World.

Plate: R.and J. OTTENS / JOH. CASPAR SCHEUCHZER Het Koninkryk Japan Amsterdam (1728) c. 1740. Based on a work by the Swiss scholar Scheuchzer, this map is one of the few to use Japanese names as well as their westernized forms.

During this same period, Peter the Great ordered a comprehensive survey of his country and the training of a corps of professional surveyors. In charge of this immense undertaking was an employee of the State Chancellry, Ivan Kyrilov (1689-1737). He planned a 3 volume atlas of Imperial Russia to consist of something like 300 to 400 maps, but it soon became evident that advice and assistance by foreign cartographers was required if the project was to be completed in a reasonable time. In consequence, following a visit to France by the Tsar and the subsequent founding of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1724, the French cartographers Joseph Nicolas and Louis Delisle (brothers of Guillaume Delisle) were invited to St Petersburg to set up a School of Astronomy and to train teams of surveyors. Unfortunately, Kyrilov and the Delisles totally disagreed on the methods of surveying needed to map the country and, in the event, Kyrilov pursued his own course and, in 1734, published the first part of his planned atlas consisting of a general map of Russia and 14 regional maps. Meanwhile, the Delisles travelled throughout Russia and Siberia gathering geographical data, compiling maps with the assistance of Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-83) and the Danish explorer Vitus Joh. Bering (1680-1741) who traversed Siberia on at least two occasions and explored the Northern Pacific. No doubt the Delisles also used much of Kyrilov's material for, after Kyrilov's death in 1737, his atlas was suppressed, possibly because of inaccuracies but more likely as a result of jealousies and intrigue; only two copies of the atlas are known to exist. Eventually, in 1745, following further disagreements between Joseph Nicolas Delisle (who felt the work was still incomplete) and the Academy of Sciences the Atlas Russicus was published containing a general map and 19 regional maps. Thereafter, further work and revision of the atlas was in the hands of Michael Lomonosov (1711-65), director of the Geographical Department of the Academy. In due course, as in so many countries, official mapping was taken over by the military and, in 1816, a new survey by triangulation was undertaken, which eventually included Poland, most of which country was then occupied by Russia.

Specialist References (Russia)

BAGROW, L., History of Cartography

BROWN, LLOYD A., The Story of Maps

TRUSTEES OF THE WALTERS ART GALLERY

World Encompassed

POLAND

In a turbulent history it was Poland's fate in the second half of the eighteenth century to be the victim of powerful and aggressive neighbours. Frederick the Great's ambition to extend the boundaries of Prussia along the Baltic coast led to the first partition of the country in 1772; at the same time Maria Teresa of Austria and Catherine II of Russia needed little persuasion to join in the destruction of an ancient enemy so that, in 1795, after the second and third partitions, Poland ceased to exist as a separate country until its sovereignty was restored at the end of the first World War in 1918. In consequence, Poland's cartographic history is fragmented, but, at least in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries knowledge of the subject was far more firmly based there than in Russia. It was in Poland that scientific knowledge was given its greatest stimulus of the time by the writings of astronomer and mathematician, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), born in Cracow. After a lifetime's study, his work, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, published in Nuremburg in the last year of his life, confirmed and extended the Pythagorean theory that the sun is the centre of the planetary system. In the field of practical cartography he produced maps of Poland and Lithuania, neither of which has survived.

Manuscript maps are known to have been drawn in the fifteenth century and there were printed maps of Eastern Europe in the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493) and in the early editions of Ptolemy's Geographia but the first 'modern' map, used by Munster and Mercator, was a woodcut compiled about 1526 by Bernard Wapowski (1475-1535) in Cracow. This may well have been based on the work of Copernicus. Other names which appear later in the century were Wenceslaus Godreccius (d. 1591) and Andreas Pograbius (d. 1602) whose maps of Poland were used by Ortelius. Following the Treaty of Lublin in 1569 with Lithuania (then a vast country covering great areas of present day Russia), a number of maps of the whole area were compiled by Polish cartographers, amongst them Maciej Strubicz (c. 1520-89) and Tomasz Makowski (1575-c. 1620). Makowski's map was published by W. J. Bleau from 1613 onwards.

Over the next 150 years the whole of Poland was gradually mapped in considerable detail, often with the aid of foreign surveyors such as Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan (1595-1685) whose maps were used by Nicolas Sanson. Finally, in the year of the first partition, 1772, a 24 sheet map was published in Paris by G. A. Rizzi Zannoni, the noted Italian cartographer, who spent many years assembling earlier manuscript and printed maps on which his work was based. This was a high point in the history of Polish cartography; the publication of Rizzi Zannoni's map inspired the preparation of new maps, atlases and town plans but this activity was shortlived and for about 125 years after 1795 mapping was in the control of the Occupying powers, whose authority, rarely given, was required if original cartographic work of any kind was contemplated. In spite of that, the spirit of independence was kept alive by emigres such as Joachim Lelewel (1786-1861) who spent much of his life in France publishing atlases and cartographic work.

Specialist References (Poland)

BAGROW, L., History of Cartography

TOOLEY, R. V., Map Collectors' Circle Papers No.25, 31,43, 56 and 57.